This document covers some of our general guidelines that we use when designing metrics.
This document covers only the principles for quantitative metrics covered under 'Productivity' in Developer Productivity and Happiness: Goals & Signals.
These principles are not about the operational metrics of various tools and services. "Operational metrics" are the ones that a team owning a tool uses to understand if it's currently working, how it's broken, its current performance, etc. Think of Operational metrics as something you would use in monitoring and alerting of a production service.
This doc also doesn't cover the business metrics for tools—the ones that measure their business goals/success—like how many users they have.
There might be some overlap of operational, business, and productivity metrics, though. That is, some productivity metrics might also be business metrics, and a very few of them could also be used as operational metrics.
- Measuring Results vs. Measuring Work
- Time Series
- Developers vs. Machines
- Common Dimensions
- Going Up or Down Must Be Meaningful
- Retention
- Business Hours
We want to measure the impact, results, or effects of our work, rather than just measuring how much work gets done. Otherwise, our metrics just tell us we're doing work—they don't tell us if we're doing the right work.
As an analogy, let's say we owned a packing plant (like, a place where they put things in boxes) and we're installing new conveyor belts on the assembly line. We could measure the progress of installing the belts (i.e., "how many belts have been fully installed?") or we could measure the effect of the belts on the quantity and quality of our packing ("how many boxes get packed?" and "what percentage of boxes pass quality inspection?"). We would rather measure the latter.
Unless stated otherwise, all of our metrics are a time series. That is, they are plotted on a graph against time—we count them per day or per week as appropriate. Most commonly, we count them per week, as that eliminates confusions around weekends and minor fluctuations between days. In particular, with some metrics, Mondays and Fridays tend to have lower or higher values than other days, and aggregating the data over a week eliminates those fluctuations.
If you show daily graphs, you should exclude weekends from all metrics unless they seem very relevant for your particular metric. We exclude weekends because they make the graphs very hard to read. (We don't exclude holidays—those are usually understandable anomalies that we actually want to be able to see in our graphs. Also, not all offices have the same holidays.) You can include weekends in all other types of graphs other than daily graphs.
Unless you have good reason for another requirement, weeks should be measured
from 12:00am Friday to the end of Thursday. Cutting off our metrics at the
end of Thursday gives executives enough time to do reviews and investigations
for Monday or Tuesday meetings. When we cannot specify a time zone, we should
assume we are measuring things in the America/Los_Angeles time zone. However,
all data should be stored in the UTC time zone.
All times should be stored ideally as microseconds, but if that's not possible, then as milliseconds. As engineering systems grow, there can be more and more events that happen very close in time, but which we need to put in order for certain metrics to work. (For example, a metric might need to know when each test in a test suite ended, and if all the tests are running in parallel, these end times could be very close together.)
When you display a metric on a graph, the event you are measuring should be assigned to a date or time on the graph by the end time of the event. For example, let's imagine we have a daily graph that shows how long our CI jobs take. If a CI job takes two days to finish, it should show up on the graph on the day that it finished, not the day that it started.
This prevents having to "go back in time" and update previous data points on the graph in a confusing way. (This is especially bad if it changes whether the graph is going up or going down multiple days after a manager has already looked at the graph and made plans based on its trend.)
Almost all our productivity metrics are defined by saying "a developer" does
something. For each metric, we need to have two different versions of the
same metric: one for when machines do the task, and one for when people do the
task. For example, we need to measure human beings doing git clone and
the CI system (or any other automated system) doing git clone separately.
The most important metrics are the ones where people do the task, not the ones where machines do the task. But we still need to be able to measure the machines doing the task, as that is sometimes relevant for answering questions about developer productivity.
Sometimes, a question comes up on whether to count something as being machine time or developer time. For example, let's say a developer types a command on their machine that causes the CI system to run a bunch of tests. The question to ask is, "Most of the time, is this action costing us developer time?" A developer doesn't have to just be sitting there and waiting for the action to finish, for it to be costing us developer time. Maybe it takes so long that they switch contexts, go read email, go eat lunch, etc. That's still developer cost. On the other hand, let's say there is a daily automated process that runs a test and then reports the test result to a developer. We would count the time spent running that test as "machine time," because it wasn't actively spending developer time.
This is particularly relevant when looking at things that happen in parallel. When we measure "developer time" for parallel actions, we only care about how much wall-clock time was taken up by the action, not the sum total of machine hours used to execute it. For example, if I run 10 tests in parallel that each take 10 minutes, I only spent 10 minutes of developer time, even though I spent 100 minutes of machine time.
There are a few common dimensions that we have found useful for slicing most of our metrics:
- By Team (i.e., the team that the affected developer is on)
- By code repository (or codebase, when considering a large repo)
- By location the developer sits in
Most metrics should also support being sliced by the above dimensions. There are many other dimensions that we slice metrics by, some of which are special to each metric; these are just the common dimensions we have found to be the most useful.
It should be clearly good or bad when a metric goes up, and clearly good or bad when it goes down. One direction should be good, and the other direction should be bad.
This should not change at a certain threshold. For example, let’s say you have a metric that’s "bad" when it goes down until it’s at 90%, and then above 90% it’s either meaningless or it’s actually good when it goes down (like you want it always to be at 90%).
Consider redesigning such metrics so that they are always good when they go up and always bad when they go down. For example, in the case of the metric that’s supposed to always be at 90%, perhaps measure how far away teams are from being at 90%.
We should strive to make metrics that are "good" when they go up and "bad" when they go down. This makes it consistent to read graphs, which makes life easier for executives and other people looking at dashboards. This isn't always possible, but when we have the choice, this is the way we should make the choice.
Prefer to retain data about developer productivity metrics forever. Each of these metrics could potentially need to be analyzed several years back into the past, especially when questions come up about how we have affected productivity over the long term. The actual cost to LinkedIn of storing these forever is extremely small, whereas the potential benefit to the business from being able to do long-term analysis is huge.
Of course, if there are legitimate legal or regulatory constrains on retention, make sure to follow those. However, there are rarely such constraints on the type of data we want to retain.
Some metrics are defined in terms of "business hours."
Basically, we are measuring the perceived wait time experienced by a developer. For example, imagine Alice sends off a code review request at 5pm and then goes home. Bob, in another time zone, reviews that code while Alice is sleeping. Alice comes back into work the next day and experiences a code review that, for her, she received in zero hours.
The ideal way to measure business hours would be to do an automated analysis for each individual to determine what their normal working hours are (making sure to keep this information confidential, only use it as an input to our productivity metrics, and never expose it outside of our team). Once you have established this baseline for each individual (which you will have to update on some regular basis) you only count time spent by individuals during those hours.
For any calendar day in the developer's local time zone, do not count more than 8 hours a day. It is confusing to have "business days" that are longer than 8 hours. So if a task takes two days to complete, and a developer was somehow working on it full time for each day, it would show up as 16 business hours (even if they worked 9 hours each day). This helps normalize out the differences in schedules between engineers. (For some metrics we may need to relax this restriction---we would determine that on a case-by-base basis when we develop the metric.)
The reason that we are picking 8 hours is that what we care the most about here is the cost to the company, and even though most software engineers are salaried, we are measuring their cost to the company in 8-hour-a-day increments. It would be unusual for any salaried engineer anywhere in the world to have contractual obligations to work more than 8 hours a day.
If you cannot generate an automated analysis of working hours for each individual, then set the "business day" as being 7am to 7pm in their local time zone. We don't use 9am to 5pm because the schedule of developers varies, and you don't want to count 0 for a lot of business hour metrics when a person regularly starts working at 8am or regularly works until 6pm. We have found that setting the range as 7am to 7pm eliminates most of those anomalies.
One still needs to limit the maximum "business hours" counted in a day to eight hours, though, for most metrics.